Yoga (Sanskrit Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the 4th century BCE. Its position in the cultures of South and Southeast Asia is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantly influenced most modern languages of Nepal and India, Pāli Pali is a Middle Indo-Aryan language or prakrit of India. It is best known as the language of the earliest extant Buddhist scriptures, as collected in the Pāḷi Canon or Tipitaka, and as the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism: योग yóga) refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries on the west and the east. It is surrounded (clockwise, from west to east) by Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian.[1] The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism Hinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span from folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as in, Buddhism Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth , that is, achieving Nirvana. Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct and altruistic and Jainism Jainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to God consciousness. Any soul which has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme.[2][3] [4]In Hinduism, it also refers to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit āstika schools of thought, or darshanas (literally, "views"), which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, and three nāstika ("heterodox") schools, which do not accept the Vedas as supreme. The āstika schools are:, and to the goal toward which that school directs its practices.[5][6] In Jainism it refers to the sum total of all activities—mental, verbal and physical.

Major branches of yoga in Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit āstika schools of thought, or darshanas (literally, "views"), which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, and three nāstika ("heterodox") schools, which do not accept the Vedas as supreme. The āstika schools are: include Raja Yoga Rāja Yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation (dhyana) to further one's acquaintance with reality and finally achieve liberation, Karma Yoga Karma yoga , (also known as Buddhi Yoga) or the "discipline of action" is based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism. One of the four pillars of yoga, Karma yoga focuses on the adherence to duty (dharma) while remaining detached from the reward. It states that one can experience salvation (Moksha), Jnana Yoga Jnâna yoga or "path of knowledge" is one of the types of yoga mentioned in Hindu philosophies. Jnâna in Sanskrit means "knowledge", Bhakti Yoga Bhakti in practice signifies an active involvement by the devotee in divine worship. The term is often translated as "devotion", though it has been suggested that a better rendering would be "participation". One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta, while bhakti as a spiritual path is referred to as bhakti marga, or the, and Hatha Yoga Hatha Yoga , also called Hatha Vidya (हठविद्या), is a system of Yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. In this treatise Swatmarama introduces Hatha Yoga as preparatory stage of physical purification that the body practices for higher meditation. The Asanas and.[7][8][9] Raja Yoga, compiled in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a foundational text of Yoga. It forms part of the corpus of Sutra literature dating to India's Mauryan period. In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. Though brief, the Yoga Sutras are an enormously influential work on yoga philosophy and practice, held by principal, and known simply as yoga in the context of Hindu philosophy, is part of the Samkhya Sankhya, also Samkhya, is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India tradition.[10] Many other Hindu texts Literature regarded as central to the Vedic Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and other Vedic texts discuss aspects of yoga, including Upanishads The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and, the Bhagavad Gita The content of the Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika The Hatha Yoga Pradipika is a classic Sanskrit manual on Hatha Yoga, written by Svami Svatmarama, a disciple of Svami Gorakhnath. Said to be the oldest surviving text on the Hatha Yoga, it is one of the three classic texts of Hatha Yoga, the other two being the Gheranda Samhita and the Shiva Samhita, the Shiva Samhita Shiva Samhita is a Sanskrit text on yoga, written by an unknown author. The text is addressed by the Hindu god Shiva to his consort Parvati ("Shiva Samhita" means "Shiva's Compendium"). It is one of three major surviving classical treatises on hatha yoga, the other two being Gheranda Samhita and Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The Shiva and various Tantras Tantra , (anglicised tantricism or tantrism) or tantram (Sanskrit: तन्त्र) is a religious philosophy according to which Shakti is usually the main deity worshipped, and the universe is regarded as the divine play of shakti and shiva. The word Tantra also applies to any of the scriptures commonly identified with the worship of Shakti.

The Sanskrit Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the 4th century BCE. Its position in the cultures of South and Southeast Asia is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantly influenced most modern languages of Nepal and India word yoga has many meanings,[11] and is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, meaning "to control", "to yoke" or "to unite".[12] Translations include "joining", "uniting", "union", "conjunction", and "means".[13][14][15] Outside India, the term yoga is typically associated with Hatha Yoga Hatha Yoga , also called Hatha Vidya (हठविद्या), is a system of Yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. In this treatise Swatmarama introduces Hatha Yoga as preparatory stage of physical purification that the body practices for higher meditation. The Asanas and and its asanas Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, intended primarily to restore and maintain a practitioner's well-being, improve the body's flexibility and vitality, and promote the ability to remain in seated meditation for extended periods. These are widely known as Yoga postures or Yoga positions, which is currently (postures) or as a form of exercise Yoga is a healing system of theory and practice. It is a combination of breathing exercises, physical postures, and meditation that has been practiced for more than 5,000 years. Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy is called a Yogi A yogi is a term for a male practitioner of various forms of spiritual practice. In contemporary English yogin is an alternative rendering for the word yogi. In Hinduism it refers to an adherent of Yoga. The word is also often used in the Buddhist context to describe Buddhist monks or a householders devoted to meditation. Chatral Rinpoche for.[16]

Contents

History of yoga

Main article: History of yoga Yoga as a Hindu philosophy is first expounded in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. This earliest school of Yoga retrospectively came to be known by the retronym Raja Yoga to distinguish it from later schools

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics Asceticism describes a life-style characterized by abstinence from various sorts of worldly pleasures (especially sexual activity and consumption of food and drink) often with the aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals, while ascetic practices (tapas Tapasya in Sanskrit means "heat". In Vedic religion and Hinduism, it is used figuratively, denoting spiritual suffering, mortification or austerity, and also the spiritual ecstasy of a yogin or tāpasá (a Vriddhi derivative meaning "a practitioner of austerities, an ascetic"). In the Rigveda, the word is connected with the) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas The Brāhmaṇas are part of the Hindu śruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals (900 to 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.[17] Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 B.C.E.) sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga", according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl Gregory Possehl is a Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania and curator of the Asian Collections at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. He has been involved in excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization in India and Pakistan since 1964, and is an author of many books and articles.[18] Some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive evidence.[19]

Techniques for experiencing higher states of consciousness in meditation were developed by the shramanic A shramana is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India, including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika religion (now extinct). Famous śramaṇa include religious leaders Mahavira and Gautama Buddha traditions and in the Upanishadic The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and tradition.[20]

While there is no convincing evidence for meditation pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.[21] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[22] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta The Nasadiya Sukta is the 129th hymn of the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda. It is concerned with cosmology and talks about the origin of the universe contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.[23]

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest texts describing meditation techniques.[24] They describe meditative practices and states which had existed before the Buddha as well as those which were first developed within Buddhism.[25] In Hindu literature, the term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad The Katha Upanishad , also entitled "Death as Teacher", is one of the mukhya ("primary") Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. It is associated with the Cāraka-Kaṭha school of the Black Yajurveda, and is grouped with the Sutra period of Vedic Sanskrit. It propounds a dualistic philosophy. It figures as number 3 in the, where it refers to control of the senses and the cessation of mental activity leading to a supreme state.[26] Important textual sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle Upanishads The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa (literally "history"), and forms an important part of Hindu mythology including the Bhagavad Gita The content of the Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a foundational text of Yoga. It forms part of the corpus of Sutra literature dating to India's Mauryan period. In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. Though brief, the Yoga Sutras are an enormously influential work on yoga philosophy and practice, held by principal (150 BCE).

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Main articles: Raja Yoga Rāja Yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation (dhyana) to further one's acquaintance with reality and finally achieve liberation and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a foundational text of Yoga. It forms part of the corpus of Sutra literature dating to India's Mauryan period. In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. Though brief, the Yoga Sutras are an enormously influential work on yoga philosophy and practice, held by principal

In Indian philosophy The term Indian philosophy , may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy. Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of Dharma, and similarly attempt to, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox In non-technical usage, the term astika is sometimes loosely translated as "theist" while nastika is translated as "atheist". However this interpretation is distinct from the use of the term in Hindu philosophy. Notably even among the astika schools, samkhyaand the early mimamsa school do not accept a God while accepting the philosophical schools.[27][28] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya Sankhya, also Samkhya, is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India school.[29] The Yoga school as expounded by the sage Patanjali Patañjali (fl. 150 BCE or 2nd c. BCE) is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice, and also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a major commentary on Panini's Ashtadhyayi. However, whether these two works are that of the same author or not remains in some doubt accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.[30][31] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller , more commonly known as Max Müller, was a German philologist and Orientalist, one of the founders of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative religion. Müller wrote both scholarly and popular works on the subject of Indology, a discipline he introduced to the British reading public, says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[32] The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha Bandha is a term often employed in relation to yogic discourse and instruction. The term denotes a binding, lock or bondage that may be either internal or external to the body), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa In Indian religions, Moksha or Mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to let loose, let go"), is the liberation from samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth or reincarnation and all of the suffering and limitation of worldly existence), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya).[33]

Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[34] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga Rāja Yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation (dhyana) to further one's acquaintance with reality and finally achieve liberation, which is a system for control of the mind.[35] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra,[36] which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:

योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध: ( yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ ) - Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".[37] The use of the word nirodhaḥ in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga Sutra; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into his system.[38] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[39]

A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in the Birla Mandir, Delhi

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

  1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): non-violence, non-lying, non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
  2. Niyama (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerity, study, and surrender to god.
  3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
  4. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.
  5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
  6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
  7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
  8. Samādhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons.[40]

Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term yoga extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,[41] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[42]

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge).[43] Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.[44]

Hatha Yoga

Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika

Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially from the Raja Yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy (tha).[45][46] Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,[47] it marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage.[48] Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that many people associate with the word "Yoga" today.[49]

Yoga practices in other traditions

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism and Hinduism#Meditation Buddha in yogic meditation in the padmasana posture.

Early Buddhism incorporated meditative absorption states.[50] The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha.[51] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption should be combined with the practice of mindfulness.[52] The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.[53] The Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.[54] Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the realization at death of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming cool", "going out") were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life.[55]

See also: Pranayama#Buddhism

Yogacara Buddhism

Yogacara (Sanskrit: "yoga practice"[56]), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries. Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.[57] The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in order to reach enlightenment.[58]

Ch'an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an"[59]) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.[50] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[60] This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices.[61] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.[62]

Indo-Tibetan Buddhism

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound.[63] The last six are described as "yoga yanas": Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mahā yoga, Anu yoga and the ultimate practice, Ati yoga.[64] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called Charya), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.[65] Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. Trul khor), a discipline which includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the practitioner.[66] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib. tummo), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga".[67] Chang also claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Jainism

Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture. Kevala Jñāna of Mahavira in mulabandhasana posture

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd Century CE Jain text, Yoga, is the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body. [68] Umasvati calls yoga as the cause of asrava or karmic influx [69] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation. [70] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion. [71] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism as essentially a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. [72] Dr. Heinrich Zimmer contended that the yoga system had pre-Aryan origins which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and hence was reckoned as one of the heterodox doctrines similar to Jainism. [73] Jain iconography depicts Jain Tirthankaras meditation in Padmasana or Kayotsarga yogic poses. Mahavira was said to have achieved Kevala Jnana "enlightenment" siting in mulabandhasana position which has the first literary mention in the Acaranga Sutra and later in Kalpasutra [74]

The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a strong influence of Jainism. [75] [76] This mutual influence between the Yoga philosophy and Jainism is admitted by the author Vivian Worthington who writes: "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainsim, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life." [77] The Indus valley seals and iconography also provide a reasonable evidence of the existence of a proto-yogic tradition akin to Jainism. [78] More specifically, scholars and archaeologists have remarked on close similarities in the yogic and meditative postures depicted in the seals with those of various Tirthankaras: the "kayotsarga" posture of Rsabha and the mulabandhasana of Mahavira along with seals depicting meditative figure flaked by upright serpents bearing similarities to iconography of Parsva. All these are indicative of not only links between Indus Valley Civilisation and Jainism, but also show the contribution of Jainism to various yogic practices. [79]

References in Jain canons and literature

Earliest of Jain canonical literature like Acarangasutra and texts like Niyamasara, Tattvarthasutra etc had many references on yoga as a way of life for laymen and asctics. The later texts that further elaborated on the Jain concept of yoga are as follows:

Islam

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).[80] The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.[81]

Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and could lead to blasphemy and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as "insulting".[82] Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said they would continue with their yoga classes.[83] The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras,[84] and states that teachings such as uniting of a human with God is not consistent with Islamic philosophy.[85] In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"[86] These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.[87]

In May of 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted Yoga as a commercial venture promoting extremism- comments made in the context of Yoga practice possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islam [88].

Christianity

In 1989, the Vatican declared that Eastern meditation practices such as Zen and yoga can "degenerate into a cult of the body." Despite the Vatican statement, many Roman Catholics bring elements of Yoga, Buddhism, and Hinduism into their spiritual practices.[89]

Tantra

Main article: Tantra

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.[90] This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.[90]

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart," for meditation and worship.[91]

Goal of yoga

The goal of yoga may range from improving health to achieving Moksha.[92] Within Jainism and the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism the goal of yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all things.[93] For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service to Svayam bhagavan itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with Vishnu.[94]

References

  1. ^ For the uses of the word in Pāli literature, see Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede, Pali-English dictionary. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 558: [1]
  2. ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68.
  3. ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samadhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pages 1-2.
  4. ^ Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
  5. ^ "Yoga has five principal meanings: 1) yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goal; 2) yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind; 3) yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana); 4) yoga in connection with other words, such as hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga; 5) yoga as the goal of yoga practice." Jacobsen, p. 4.
  6. ^ Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Sāṃkhya systems," and "mental abstraction practised as a system (as taught by Patañjali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga".
  7. ^ Pandit Usharbudh Arya (1985). The philosophy of hatha yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; 2nd ed.
  8. ^ Sri Swami Rama (2008) The royal path: Practical lessons on yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; New Ed edition.
  9. ^ Swami Prabhavananda (Translator), Christopher Isherwood (Translator), Patanjali (Author). (1996). Vedanta Press; How to know god: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. New Ed edition.
  10. ^ Jacobsen, p. 4.
  11. ^ For a list of 38 meanings of the word "yoga" see: Apte, p. 788.
  12. ^ For "yoga" as derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj" with meanings of "to control", "to yoke, or "to unite" see: Flood (1996), p. 94.
  13. ^ For meaning 1. joining, uniting, and 2., union, junction, combination see: Apte, p. 788.
  14. ^ For "mode, manner, means", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 5.
  15. ^ For "expedient, means in general", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 13.
  16. ^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic."
  17. ^ Flood, p. 94.
  18. ^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144-145
  19. ^ See:
  20. ^ Flood, pp. 94–95.
  21. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
  22. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 56.
  23. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
  24. ^ Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 44.
  25. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 50.
  26. ^ Flood, p. 95. Scholars do not list the Katha Upanishad among those that can be safely described as pre-Buddhist, see for example Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur," [2]. Some have argued that it is post-Buddhist, see for example Arvind Sharma's review of Hajime Nakamura's A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp. 325-331. For a comprehensive examination of the uses of the Pali word "yoga" in early Buddhist texts, see Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede, Pali-English dictionary. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 558: [3]. For the use of the word in the sense of "spiritual practice" in the Dhammapada, see Gil Fronsdal, The Dhammapada, Shambhala, 2005, pages 56, 130.
  27. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.
  28. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  29. ^ For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  30. ^ For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
  31. ^ For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  32. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.
  33. ^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.
  34. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
  35. ^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp. 96–98.
  36. ^ Patañjali (2001-02-01). "Yoga Sutras of Patañjali" (etext). Studio 34 Yoga Healing Arts. http://www.studio34yoga.com/yoga.php#reading. Retrieved on 2008-11-24.
  37. ^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind" see: Taimni, p. 6.
  38. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords. University of California Press, 1996, page 9.
  39. ^ Vivekanada, p. 115.
  40. ^ Stephen H. Phillips, Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "new Logic". Open Court Publishing, 1995, pages 12–13.
  41. ^ Jacobsen, p. 10.
  42. ^ "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice. The Gita also introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)." Flood, p. 96.
  43. ^ Gambhirananda, p. 16.
  44. ^ Jacobsen, p. 46.
  45. ^ Living Yoga: Creating a Life Practice - Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page 42)
  46. ^ Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers - Page 10 by Nancy Gerstein
  47. ^ Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind - Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio
  48. ^ Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice By Mikel Burley (page 16)
  49. ^ Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.
  50. ^ a b Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
  51. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords. University of California Press, 1996, page 8.
  52. ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 73.
  53. ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 105.
  54. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 96.
  55. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 109.
  56. ^ Dan Lusthaus: "What is and isn't Yogacara"
  57. ^ Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun. Published 2002 (Routledge). ISBN 0700711864. pg 533
  58. ^ Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804831998
  59. ^ The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William Theodore de Bary. Pgs. 207-208. ISBN 0-394-71696-5 - "The Meditation school, called Ch'an in Chinese from the Sanskrit dhyāna, is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation Zen"
  60. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)
  61. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13). Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 World Wisdom. 387 pages. ISBN 0941532895 [Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation."]
  62. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)
  63. ^ The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001 ISBN 1570628955
  64. ^ Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 37-38
  65. ^ Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 57
  66. ^ Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu. Snow Lion, 2008. ISBN 1559393084
  67. ^ Chang, G.C.C. (1993). Tibetan Yoga. New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1453-1, p.7
  68. ^ Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
  69. ^ Tattvarthasutra [6.2]
  70. ^ Tattvarthasutra [6.2]
  71. ^ Niyamasara [134-40]
  72. ^ Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.66
  73. ^ Zimmer, Heinrich in (ed.) Joseph Campbell: Philosophies of India. New York: Princeton University Press, 1969 p.60
  74. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993) Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. New York: SUNY Press, 1993 p. 7
  75. ^ Zydenbos (2006) p.66
  76. ^ A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN 071009258X p. 29
  77. ^ Vivian Worthington (1982) p. 35
  78. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), p.6
  79. ^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), pp.6-9
  80. ^ Situating Sufism and Yoga
  81. ^ Carolina Seminar on Comparative Islamic Studies
  82. ^ Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims - CNN
  83. ^ [4]
  84. ^ "Malaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chant," Associated Press
  85. ^ [5]
  86. ^ [6]
  87. ^ [7]
  88. ^ http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/domestic/11692086.asp?gid=244
  89. ^ Steinfels, Peter (1990-01-07). "Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1D61531F934A35752C0A966958260&sec=&spon=. Retrieved on 2008-12-05.
  90. ^ a b Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 313
  91. ^ Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 317
  92. ^ Jacobsen, p. 10.
  93. ^ Jacobsen, p. 9.
  94. ^ Brittanica Concise "Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its goal is to escape from the cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of Vishnu."

Further reading

Look up yoga in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

External links

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Classic Yogas Bhakti yoga · Karma Yoga · Jnana Yoga · Raja Yoga
Other Yogas Agni Yoga · Anahata Yoga · Artistic Yoga · Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga · Atma Yoga · Dream Yoga · Hatha yoga · Integral yoga · Kriya yoga · Kundalini yoga · Natya Yoga · Sahaja Yoga · Sivananda Yoga · Six Yogas of Naropa (Tummo) · Surat Shabd Yoga · Viniyoga · Yantra Yoga · Yoga Nidra
Texts Bhagavad Gita · Yoga Sutras · Hatha Yoga Pradipika · Gheranda Samhita · Shiva Samhita
Raja Yoga limbs Yama · Niyama · Asana · Pranayama · Pratyahara · Dharana · Dhyana · Samadhi
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Related topics Ayurveda · Chakra · Mantra · Tantra · Vedanta · Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine · Nadi
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What kind of discipline is Yoga? how does it improve your health and your physical condition?
Q. I am willing to start making some exercise, but i cannot make my mind if i should try yoga or go to a gym. I have never done any sport, i'm bad with that, and i believe i have not a good physical condition, altougth i'm not fat or anything like that. I am just convinced that i need to make something with my body for healt, and because my work is mostly sitted in front of my computer, and as much as i like it, i know it's stressing.
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A. I don't do any gym programs, just yoga and I am much stronger and leaner than I used to be. You can get a really good workout from a yoga program, if you approach it right. First, start with classes that will teach you the poses and proper alignment. These classes are usually called Hatha Yoga. You'll need to improve your balance and flexibility a bit before moving on. After a couple of months, move to a more challenging level. Try Vinyasa yoga, ashtanga yoga, or kundilini yoga. All three are more intense, move faster, and keep your heart rate up in the fat-burning zone. I think you'll love yoga - plus at the end of each class there is a relaxation/meditation period that is great for destressing. I totally fell in love after the first… [cont.]
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